One Line of Code that Compromises Your ServerThe dangers of a simplistic session secretA session secret is a key used for encrypting cookies. Application developers often setit to a weak key during development, and don't fix it during production. This articleexplains how such a weak key can be cracked, and how that cracked key can be used togain control of the server that hosts the application. We can prevent this by usingstrong keys and careful key management. Library authors should encourage this withtools and documentation.

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I was recently taking a quick look at a small Ruby web application built onSinatra. As I scanned through the configuration code I came across this line: set:sessionsecret, 'super secret'Uh oh. Chances are the string 'super secret' isn't actually that much of asecret.Even though it is quite obvious that this is a mistake when I pull that line outalone in a post about the importance of secrets, it's an extremely common type ofmistake to make. It's easy to do. After all, it's just one line of code among many,and once it was written there was likely little reason to revisit that part of thecode again.What's more, it's a mistake that has no immediate impact for either users ordevelopers. The app still works fine, sessions still hold state, deployments continuewithout a hitch.An attacker, however, could likely use this flaw to log in as any user in thesystem, and even gain shell access to the server it’s running on.Let’s explore how that is possible, tracing through the steps an attacker couldtake.But first, what exactly is this session secret?

The servers of one or more third parties on our behalf, and the Internet, and may. Of 13, we will remove that information from our database as soon as possible. Rules (for User Materials Submitted through the AgWeb Community). Try to look advantage database server 11 in another Keygen Data Base.

How to crack a weak session secretSo “super secret” isn't cryptographically secure random data. But would anattacker really be able to take advantage of this without access to the sourcecode?While SHA1 isn't reversible, it is, unfortunately in this case, extremely fast(as a general purpose hash function, it was designed to be).

This isn't a problem ifthe secret is suitably long cryptographically secure random data, but “super secret”definitely isn't. Let's see how long it would take an attacker to guess it.Instead of making completely random guesses resulting in a brute force attack, wecan try our luck at a dictionary attack.

The dictionary attack gets it's name fromtrying every word in a dictionary, but in reality the dictionary is only the start.Taylor Hornby writes this about his CrackStation list:The list contains every wordlist, dictionary, and password database leak that Icould find on the internet (and I spent a LOT of time looking). It also containsevery word in the Wikipedia databases (pages-articles, retrieved 2010, alllanguages) as well as lots of books from Project Gutenberg. It also includes thepasswords from some low-profile database breaches that were being sold in theunderground years ago.Wow, that sounds like a lot of data. The full CrackStation list contains almost1.5 billion entries in a single 15 gigabyte file.SHA1 is fast, but with that much data, let's make sure we're calculating thosehashes as fast as possible.is a program to do exactly that.

Written inhighly optimized C, and taking advantage of both CPUs and GPUs, Hashcat will flythrough SHA1. The GPU support is key as GPU's can compute hashes much faster thanCPU's can. My laptop doesn't have a GPU, but it would be a shame not to takeadvantage of this support.At the end of 2013 Amazon launched aspart of it's EC2 offering. For just $2.60 an hour, we can rent a g2.8xlargeinstance with:.

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60G of memoryWith the CrackStation wordlist, Hashcat, and our giant EC2 instance, we have afairly respectable hashing setup for very little effort and astonishingly littlecost. ImpactThis experiment clearly shows that dictionary attacks against Rack sessionsecrets are well within the realm of possibility. A session secret that is notsufficiently cryptographically random can be guessed with fairly little time,effort and resources.This attack is not limited to Rack secrets, and many web frameworks require asession secret in their default configuration in order to operate securely. These all work very similarlyto our:sessionsecret, and can also be guessed in a similar ways.Next, let’s explore the harm an attacker could cause after guessing thissecret. Getting data from the serverA shell is a shell? Well not quite. ImpactIn this example we are only exfiltrating the /etc/passwd file from the server.

Thisactually isn’t because the passwd file is particularly sensitive - it’s usually not -but because it’s generally a world readable file that exists on every linux server.We’re just proving that we can execute arbitrary commands and read the result.From here, an attacker would likely first determine what external systems theapplication has access to. Databases, internal web services, and backup systems can allbe valuable targets.They would then use the same information and credentials that the application uses toexplore these services. For example, the database that the application is using couldcontain valuable data such as username/password information, PII, and credit cardinformation.Again, these types of attacks are not Rack or Ruby specific. Deserialization is acomplex task, and can often be exploited when untrusted data is accepted. Was found in the (Java) Apache Commons Collections library in 2015,affecting products such as WebLogic, WebSphere, JBoss, and Jenkins.

However, frameworksthat do not use object serialization are less susceptible toattacks like this. For example, with the 4.1 release Railsswitched the default serialization mechanism from, mitigating the RCE portionof this attack and limiting the damange to forgedsessions.

For library and framework authorsIdeally, this attitude would spread beyond delivery teams and into frameworksand libraries as well. First, there is no indication how to generate a value to use in place of 'supersecret'. How long should it be?

Are two dictionary words 'random' enough? The example onlyhas two words, so that would make sense. Once we have a secret, should it be checked intosource control? The rest of this configuration file is, so that must be the thing todo.You may also remember from the beginning of this article that this example from thedocumentation is exactly what we found in our application. While copying and pasting codelike this and using it without question is definitely a bad practice, it's easy to imagineways this slipped through the cracks.

Maybe the developer added the line quickly to pass atest, meaning to go back later and change it, but forgot because everything was 'green'.Maybe they went off to research how to generate the correct key when a high priorityproduction issue was discovered and needed immediate attention.If the Sinatra examples had showed using environment variables for secrets and clearlydescribed a secure method for secret generation, I likely wouldn't be writing this.Lastly, there are some code design choices that could have been made in Sinatra andRack that could have prevented this from occurring. Sinatra could add validation to:sessionsecret, checking that it is, say, 64 bytes of hex-encoded data. Doing so wouldmake it a lot more difficult to mistakenly set a value that is too weak. On Rack's side ofthings, while being able to serialize and deserialize native Ruby objects is convenient,it's a strategy that has been shown to be insecure. It violates the secure developmentprinciple 'Separation of Data and Code,' giving attackers an opportunity to change codepaths in unexpected ways by manipulating input data.

Even though the cookie data issupposed to be trusted, the principle of 'Defense in Depth' encourages us to considerattackers that have already managed to bypass some of our mitigations. ConclusionIn the end, the good news is that there are many places where this issue couldhave been prevented.Application developers can keep basic security Awareness in mind, and help tocreate a culture that takes security seriously. One of the key principles to keep inmind is Keeping Secrets Secret. Generating secrets using a cryptographically securerandom number generator and developing a secret management strategy will help usachieve this.Library and framework authors can include examples and initial settings that areSecure by Default, and follow secure development guidelines like Separation of Dataand Code and Defense in Depth.In fact, Sinatra now, and provide clear instructions on how to generate the key safely. Thanksand!Hopefully as our industry continues to become more aware of the impacts ofsoftware vulnerabilities we will continue to see more proactive controls like theseput into practice.

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